This paper describes a program for calculating the kinetic characteristics of heterophase reactions written in the Visual Basic Community 2015 programming language. The calculation of the rate constants and activation energies is carried out by regression analysis methods. The reaction mechanism is determined by the minimum of approximation errors from a number of functions (power and exponential laws, Praut - Tompkins and Avraami equations). The reaction mechanism determines the reaction zone: power - kinetic, and the other three - diffusion. Also, by the example of the anorthosites fluorination reaction with ammonium hydrodifluoride, a statistical test of hypotheses is carried out on the adequacy of the used Snedecor-Fisher regression models and on the significance of the regression coefficients according to the Student t-test. The program was tested on calculations of heterophase reactions carried out during technological processes of complex fluoride processing of aluminosilicate and silicate raw materials of the Upper Amur Region, as well as a number of regions of the Russian Federation.
speed constant
activation energy
reaction zone
reaction mechanism
linear regression
nonlinear regression
procedure
1. Sorokin A.P., Rimkevich V.S., Pushkin A.A., Eranskaya T.Yu. Non-waste geotechnologies of complex processing of aluminosilicate and silicate raw materials of the Amur Region // Mountain Information and Analytical Bulletin. - 2016. - No. 11. - S. 215–223.
2. Stromberg A.G., Semchenko D.P. Physical chemistry. - M.: Higher School, 1999 .-- 528 p.
3. Pushkin A.A., Rimkevich V.S. Establishment of zones of heterophasic reactions // International Research Journal. - 2017. - No. 03 (57). - Part 3. - S. 35–38.
4. Baldin K.V., Bashlykov V.N., Rukosuev A.V. Theory of Probability and Mathematical Statistics. Textbook. 2nd edition. - M .: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co.", 2014. - 473 p.
6. Dukin AN, Pozhidaev A.A. Tutorial Visual Basic 2010. - SPb .: BHV-Petersburg, 2010. - 560 p.
7. Shevyakova D., Stepanov A., Dukin A. Tutorial Visual basic 2008. - SPb .: BHV-Petersburg, 2008. - 592 p.
8. Kolemaev V.A., Staroverov S.V., Turundaevsky V.B. Theory of Probability and Mathematical Statistics. Textbook for economic specialties of universities. - M.: Higher School, 1991. - 400 p.
This article is devoted to computer processing of experiments on the kinetics of chemical reactions. At our institute, the kinetics of chemical reactions is studied during the development of technological processes of complex fluoride processing for various types of aluminosilicate raw materials in the Upper Amur Region. The results of an experimental study of the kinetics of a chemical reaction are the concentrations of a certain substance C ik (t ik) at given times t ik (i \u003d 1, ..., nk, where nk is the number of time samples at a temperature T k, k \u003d 1,2, ..., l, where l is the number of temperatures). The number of operating temperatures l allowed in the program is from two to four. The number of time samples n k, in the General case, for different temperatures T k differs and varies from 3 to 9.
The results of processing the experimental data are the rate constants and activation energies, as well as the flow zones and reaction mechanisms. Knowledge of the reaction zone and mechanism at a given temperature gives knowledge about the physicochemical process, which determines its course and allows you to control the course of the reaction. Comparison of the rate constants and activation energies of various reactions allows us to compare these reactions with each other.
We calculate the rate constants in the work using four types of physicochemical processes corresponding to the four laws of concentration change: power law (), Avraami (), exponential (), and Praut - Tompkins, where wi is the reaction rate, C i is the concentration of the substance, α i is the degree of conversion of the substance, k is the rate constant. A power law describes particle collisions, the other three describe different types of diffusion. In accordance with this, the reaction zone described by the power-law process is kinetic, for the remaining three processes - the diffusion.
To determine the reaction mechanism in the program, the values \u200b\u200bof approximation errors are used. We believe that the reaction mechanism at a given temperature is determined by the law of concentration change at which the approximation error at a given temperature is minimal. Since approximation errors are calculated for each temperature, so far the reaction mechanism for each temperature can be its own. The program organized the automatic selection of data (rate constants, activation energies, zones and reaction mechanisms) for each of the studied temperatures.
Purpose of the study
The starting point of the study in this work is the data on the kinetics of chemical reactions. The purpose of the study is to determine the kinetic characteristics of the reaction. The mathematical processing of experimental results is greatly facilitated by using a computer calculation program. In order to develop a computer program, a calculation algorithm was created with subsequent software implementation, initially using the Microsoft Access 2007 application using vba. This paper describes a program for processing experimental kinetics data with the calculation of kinetic parameters: rate constants, activation energies, zones and reaction mechanisms, written in the language of Visual Basic Community 2015.
Materials and research methods
Research methods in the work are regression analysis and computer calculation. For each of the processes mentioned above, the regression equation is constructed by linearizing its equation. Linearization is carried out in the case of power law, exponential laws and the Praouth - Tompkins equation by logarithm, and in the case of Abraham - by the double logarithm method. The resulting regression equations are nonlinear. By changing variables, we make the transition to two linear regression models: with an angular coefficient and a free term in the case of a power law and Abraham and with one angular coefficient in the case of an exponential law and the Praut - Tompkins equation (see Table 1). Further, according to the formulas of the least squares method, we calculate the values \u200b\u200bof the angular coefficients and free terms. In the case of the power law and the Abraham equation, the angular coefficient is equal to the order of the reaction, and the free term is equal to the logarithms of the rate constant. In the case of the exponential law and the Prout - Tompkins equation, the angular coefficients are rate constants.
Table 1
Nonlinear regression models, variable substitutions for transition to linear models and their equations for the processes used in the program
|
Name of law |
The mathematical formulation of the law |
Nonlinear regression |
Variable Replacement |
Linear regression |
|
Linear |
||||
|
Power |
||||
|
Exponential |
||||
|
Praut - Tompkins |
||||
|
Arrhenius |
The activation energies in the program are calculated using the Arrhenius equation for the rate constants. After the conversion, logarithm and change of variables, an equation with one angular coefficient is obtained, which is calculated by the least squares method. The angular coefficient is equal to the activation energy divided by the universal gas constant R (the last row in Table 1).
The program calculates the approximation errors by the formula
(*)
where cik (tik) are the experimental values \u200b\u200bof the concentrations at time tik, is the calculated value obtained according to the studied law at points tik at temperature Tk, and nk, as before, is the number of time samples at a given temperature.
The selection of the dependence with a smaller approximation error, and hence the determining reaction mechanism at a given temperature, is carried out automatically in the program.
In addition, statistical hypotheses are tested on the adequacy of each of the regression models by the Snedecor - Fisher criterion, as well as on the significance of the coefficients of these regression models by the Student t-test. The hypothesis on the homogeneity of reproducibility dispersions is not tested in the work, since only one measurement is carried out at each point of the factor space.
Research results and discussion
The Kinetics program for calculating the kinetic characteristics of heterophase reactions is written in Visual Basic in the integrated software development environment Visual Studio Community 2015.
The program has ten tabs: Input, Kinetics, Reaction Zone, Graphs, StatisticsX (X \u003d 0, ..., 5).
The Input tab is intended for placing control elements that perform data entry: arrays of concentrations End X (i) and times Time X (i), temperature line TemperX (X \u003d 1, ..., 4; i \u003d 1, 2, ..., n), number of points time samples nk, number of data series l, maximum times and concentrations for each of the temperatures Tk.
The significance level (set by selecting one of the eight values \u200b\u200bin the list in the ComboBox field) is used to select the Student and Snedecor - Fisher coefficients from the Excel student and Fisher tables connected to the program.
After selecting the significance level by pressing the Calculate button on the Input tab, the procedure for calculating all the provided characteristics is launched. The first step is to create two-dimensional arrays of concentrations and time Time (i, j) and Сonc (i, j), one-dimensional arrays of temperatures Temperature (k) and inverse temperatures ReTemp (k) \u003d 1 / (Temperature (k) + 273), k \u003d 1, ..., l.
Next, the transition to the relative values \u200b\u200bof concentration and time Time_norm (i, j) and Сonc_norm (i, j) is carried out, dividing by the maximum values. Then, generalized coordinates are introduced, representing three-dimensional arrays abscissa (4, 9, 4) and ordinate (4, 9, 4), in which the first index indicates the serial number of the law of concentration change from 0 to 4, the second indicates the serial number of the time from 3 to 9, the third - the serial number of the temperature range from 1 to 4. Here is a fragment of the program in which the input of generalized variables is carried out:
If j \u003d 0 Then ordinate (j, i, k) \u003d Conc_norm (i, k): abscissa (j, i, k) \u003d Time_norm (i, k)
If j \u003d 1 Then ordinate (j, i, k) \u003d Math.Log (Rate (i, k)): abscissa (j, i, k) \u003d Math.Log (Conc_norm (i, k))
If j \u003d 2 Then ordinate (j, i, k) \u003d Math.Log (-Math.Log (1 - Conc_norm (i, k))): abscissa (j, i, k) \u003d Math.Log (Time_norm (i , k))
If j \u003d 3 Then ordinate (j, i, k) \u003d Math.Log (1 - Conc_norm (i, k)): abscissa (j, i, k) \u003d Time_norm (i, k)
If j \u003d 4 Then ordinate (j, i, k) \u003d Math.Log (Conc_norm (i, k) / (1 - Conc_norm (i, k))): abscissa (j, i, k) \u003d Time_norm (i, k).
After that, the calculation of the amounts for the least squares method:
Sx (j, k) \u003d Sx (j, k) + abscissa (j, i, k)
Sy (j, k) \u003d Sy (j, k) + ordinate (j, i, k)
Sxy (j, k) \u003d Sxy (j, k) + abscissa (j, i, k) * ordinate (j, i, k)
Sx2 (j, k) \u003d Sx2 (j, k) + Math.Pow (abscissa (j, i, k), 2),
where Sx (j, k), Sy (j, k), Sxy (j, k) and Sx2 (j, k) are the sums of abscissas, ordinates, products of abscissas and ordinates and squares of abscissas, respectively.
Further, the program calculates the free terms and the angular coefficients of the regressions for each regression model (each of the laws of concentration change) and at each temperature. The rate constants ConRat (j, k) for the linear model (j \u003d 0) are equal to the free term, for the power law (j \u003d 1) and the Avraami equations (j \u003d 2) are calculated by taking the exponent from the free term, and the reaction orders m (j, k) for these two laws are equal to the angular coefficients (rows two and three from the top of Table 1). The rate constants for the exponential law (j \u003d 3) and the Prout - Tompkins equation (j \u003d 4) are equal to the angular coefficients of the corresponding regression equations (in Table 1, lines 4 and 5 above).
The errors in calculating the rate constants pK (j, k) and the reaction orders pM (j, k) are calculated using the formulas for calculating the regression coefficients, and the approximation error Prec (j, k) is calculated using the formula (*). The errors in calculating the rate constants pK (j, k) and the approximations Prec (j, k) are calculated for each model and at each temperature. The errors of the reaction orders pM (j, k) are calculated for models with j \u003d 1, 2.
The activation energies are calculated according to the formula given in the last column of the sixth line from the top of the table. 1. In this regression model, the variables are the inverse temperatures ReTemp (k) and the logarithm of the rate constant ConRat (j, k). From this formula it follows that the activation energy is equal to the angular coefficient of this model, multiplied by the universal gas constant. For each model, one activation energy value is calculated. The error of activation energy pE (j) is also calculated for each model.
The calculation of the rate constants, the errors of the rate constants, the approximation errors, as well as the reaction orders and their errors is given on the Kinetics tab.
On the Reaction Zone tab (see Fig. 1), the results of automated selection are located: data on those zones and reaction mechanisms that (according to the calculation and selection results) occurred at each temperature. This also includes the values \u200b\u200bof the rate constants, their calculation errors and approximation errors, and activation energies.
By clicking the Output button on the Reaction Zone tab, data is output to the Microsoft Word table. Data output is carried out using a separate procedure that automatically formats text and tables. The program provides for the conclusion and filling of the table for a different number of data series (from two to four).
In fig. 1 as an example, shows the results of calculating the reaction of fluorination of anorthosites with ammonium hydrodifluoride. It can be seen from this figure that this solid-phase reaction at all temperatures proceeds in the diffusion zone, at the lower and middle temperatures according to the Abraham equation, and at the upper temperature according to the exponential law. The activation energy for Abraham is in this case 19.1 kJ / mol, and for the exponential law it is 19.7 kJ / mol. Despite the various reaction mechanisms, the activation energies are close and the rate constants monotonically increase from 0.004483 min-1 to 0.017836 min-1. Apparently, this is due to the fact that the reaction orders for Abraham were close to 1 and took the values \u200b\u200bof 0.86; 0.91; 0.96; 1.09 (see Fig. 2). From a comparison of the Abraham equation with the exponential law, it is obvious that for an order equal to 1, the Abraham equation goes over to the exponential law.
Fig. 1. Kinetics tab of the Kinetics program with calculation results using the example of fluoridation of anorthosites as ammonium hydrodifluoride
Fig. 2. Kinetics tab of the Kinetics program with calculation results using the example of fluorination of anorthosites as ammonium hydrodifluoride
table 2
Statistical testing of hypotheses about the adequacy of regression models and the significance of Snedecor-Fisher and Student t-regression coefficients, respectively
The program carries out statistical testing of hypotheses about the adequacy of the regression model using the Snedecor – Fisher criterion and the significance of the regression coefficients according to the Student t-criterion (see Table 2).
Statistical verification showed the adequacy of models with j \u003d 2, 3, 4 at all temperatures. Models with j \u003d 0 and 1 are inadequate at lower temperatures. Checking the significance of the regression coefficients showed the significance of the angular regression coefficients for models with j \u003d 0, 2, 3, 4 at all temperatures, with j \u003d 1 at lower temperatures. Free terms are significant only for the power law at the upper temperature.
Back to fig. 1. The mechanisms selected by the minimum of approximation errors, by Abraham and exponential, are subjected to statistical analysis. Note that the rate constants for Avraami are calculated by taking the exponent from the free term, which according to Student's t-criterion is statistically insignificant at all temperatures. Apparently, we should assume that the reaction mechanism is an exponential law, including at low and medium temperatures. The activation energy, therefore, will be equal to 19.7 kJ / mol at all temperatures, and the rate constants will have a value of 0.003942; 0.005346; 0.007637; 0.017836 (see Fig. 2).
The Kinetics program for calculating kinetic characteristics was tested on the calculations of various reactions during the complex fluoride processing of aluminosilicate and silicate raw materials with the extraction of useful products.
Bibliographic reference
Pushkin A.A., Rimkevich V.S. PROGRAM FOR CALCULATING KINETICS OF HETEROPHASIC REACTIONS IN VISUAL BASIC COMMUNITY 2015 // Fundamental research. - 2017. - No. 10-3. - S. 518-523;URL: http://fundamental-research.ru/ru/article/view?id\u003d41868 (accessed: 06/23/2019). We bring to your attention the journals published by the Academy of Natural Sciences publishing house
There are many programs for scientific work. There are highly specialized, there are general purpose, there are paid and free programs. All of them, one way or another, should help process the data and build graphs.
A wide-profile program allows you to export data from ASCII files (txt or dat), perform data manipulations, plot, smooth, approximate data with a user function or standard functions, and much more. The most important thing is that the program is convenient to use and the graphics are suitable for publication.
The de facto standard for building scientific graphics is Origin, and oddly enough, Excel. Although Excel does not build graphics well, and working with graphics leaves much to be desired, sometimes it is very convenient to work in it. Here you can also mention the less well-known paid programs SigmaPlot, Grapher, Kaleidagraph, IgorPro and of course the biggest monster TechPlot. These programs are expensive or very expensive. The question arises, is it possible to replace them with free analogues? Entirely and completely - no. Although the basic functions that ordinary scientists and students use are easy. To remove the red-eye effect, it is completely optional to use Photoshop: you can use the free Xnview. So it is in the world of scientific programs. There is a replacement. And you can always find a program that will perform the operations you need.
As mentioned above, there are broad-based programs, and to some extent they are analogues of Origin. There are highly specialized programs: they are designed to approximate data with user functions or standard; to digitize data from a printed chart in a magazine or an old chart from a plotter. The discussion below will be about these programs.
Programs to replace Origin:
Programs for approximating data by user functions or standard ones:
Peak fit
Fityk 0.9.2
Programs for digitizing graphs:
GetData (free for the former USSR)
There is a separate class of programs that uses the “command line”:
The most "variegated" in composition, functionality, number of names and closest to the end user is, of course, the class of applications. The most obvious for applications is their systematization according to their functional purpose and scope. In terms of functionality, application software can be divided into several large groups:
□ office applications;
□ project management applications;
□ applications for working with a local network;
□ Internet applications;
□ programs for scientific research and calculations;
□ educational programs;
□ programs for organizing the work of educational institutions;
□ programs for libraries;
□ programs for working with multimedia;
□ accounting programs;
□ financial programs;
□ design software;
□ business software;
□ software of public authorities;
□ safety programs;
□ programs. For personal planning;
Only the main areas in which the user application software is developing functionally are listed here. It is impossible to cover absolutely everything for the simple reason that today almost any human activity, any area of \u200b\u200bhis life is supported by one or another type of software. Consider in more detail the main categories.
15.6.1. Office applications
Office applications can include both ready-made office suites (proprietary Microsoft Office or open OpenOffice.org), as well as individual programs related to performing functions of input, storage, processing and presentation of documents in electronic form: various text editors and word processors, spreadsheets , programs for creating presentations, graphs and charts, individual and group planning programs. Office applications have penetrated so deeply into any activity that today a desktop computer is inconceivable without an office suite, which is perceived as an integral part of the computer.
Each office application, from the included office suites, has its own purpose and its own set of necessary and additional functions.
Word processor
A word processor is an application whose main purpose is to create and edit text documents. Necessary for a modern word processor are the functions of entering text and performing editing operations on the text (copying, cutting, deleting and pasting text fragments to the specified location), as well as saving the text in a file on a physical medium.
Additional features supported by modern word processors have long become the de facto standard for creating software of this class:
□ text formatting - changing the type and parameters of the font (color of characters and background, size, strikethrough, underline, distance between characters and other parameters);
□ paragraph formatting - changing alignment parameters, numbering, creating lists;
□ page formatting - pagination, automatic and arbitrary, changing the number of columns, creating partitions;
□ search and replacement of fragments in the text of the document;
□ printing a document;
□ sending the document to the addressee by e-mail;
□ means of collaboration on documents (peer review);
□ insertion of images, graphs and diagrams into the document;
□ document processing automation - means of inserting a table of contents, footnotes, citations, bibliography, means of forming the structure of the document;
□ exporting a document in various formats - export to HTML cross-platform format is especially important.
□ function programming tools in the built-in programming language.
In fig. 15.4 shows the windows of two word processors. The first (Word) is included in the standard Microsoft Office software product, the second (Writer) is included in the free software product OpenOffice.org. It can be seen that the two main toolbars of these word processors coincide functionally almost completely.
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The main function of a spreadsheet is to store data in typed cells, allowing you to access a data unit by addressing by the name (number) of a column (row), and also process data by performing arithmetic operations on them or passing them as arguments to built-in functions.
Additional functions of the spreadsheet are almost similar to the functions of a word processor: formatting text, inserting images and various objects, styling and color formatting the text, background and grid of the table, both unconditional (formatting the selected fragment) and conditional (depending on the values \u200b\u200bin those or other cells). In addition, the additional functions of spreadsheets include the expansion of their functionality through specialized add-ons designed to perform statistical, financial, economic and scientific calculations and data experiments. As well as for text documents, for spreadsheets, the ability to export to different formats, in particular to the HTML format, and to print the tables is important.
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The free Calc program and proprietary Excel almost do not differ in functionality. Everything that can be done in Microsoft Excel can be done in Calc. Documents created in Calc can be saved in Excel format, and documents created in Excel can be opened in Calc. However, one cannot speak of complete identity, as well as full compatibility: some operations (for example, correct restoration of links to other worksheets and books) that Microsoft Excel supports are not supported in Calc. There is incompatibility at the level of application programming: the built-in languages \u200b\u200bin these two programs are different, so the Microsoft Excel macros in Calc will not work.
In order not to repeat further, it should be noted that this kind of incomplete compatibility both in functionality and in built-in automation mechanisms is common to all programs of two packages: Microsoft Office and OpenOffice. Org.
Presentation Programs
Presentations did not immediately become an integral part of the office suite. The first office suites included only word processors and spreadsheets; in some cases, office suites included a tool for creating binder documents and some others. However, with the development of multimedia tools and projector equipment, the need for a compressed, visual, beautifully designed, illustrated with diagrams and graphs of information presentation became more and more clear. Thus arose the genre of computer presentation, and with it the program for creating presentations.
The main functionality of the program for creating presentations should be considered the ability to create, design and play in various modes of computer presentations.
Additional functionality includes the following features:
□ the presence of a large number and variety of visual and sound effects reproduced during the transition between slides and from one part of the slide to another;
□ creation of standalone presentations, that is, presentations that are played independently of the base program (this can be an executable file, as well as a flash- or pdf-file format);
□ developed system of templates and a rich collection of images;
□ interaction with presentation equipment;
□ the ability to implement complex multimedia objects and their simple management.
In fig. Figure 5.6 shows the programs for creating Power Point presentations from the Microsoft Office suite and Impress from the OpenOffice.org product.
 Fig. 15.6. Presentation Creation |
15.6.2. Project management programs
One of the most popular areas for managers today at various levels of business management is project management. The project management method, in which a set of interrelated business tasks is considered as a single project with precisely defined time and start, budget, staff, and a complete distribution of tasks, has proven effective in many ways: it is well-algorithmized, standardized, and easily transferable from one spheres to another.
Not surprisingly, project management tools for both senior and mid-level managers are a fairly common class of software. The most famous project management software product is, of course, Microsoft Project, both desktop and server. This product allows you to manage both individual small and medium-sized projects, as well as corporate-level project packages integrated into the portfolio.
Necessary for project management are the following features:
□ determine (set) resources, including material, financial, human, temporary, etc .;
□ determine the work (tasks), establishing their hierarchy and interconnectedness;
□ develop and track project budgets for different sections (time, resources, work);
□ efficiently allocate resources and work, track and mark the completion of tasks and the expenditure of resources;
□ receive reports on the progress of the project in various forms (Gantt charts, calendar schedule, budgets, weekly or daily submissions);
□ flexibly rebuild created design configurations.
15.6.3. Client programs for working with Internet services
The most famous Internet service that makes up the World Wide Web (WWW) is running over HTTP. This service is used by programs called Internet browsers, or Internet browsers. The task of the Internet browser is to download Internet pages from a given address, display them correctly, ensure user interaction with the active elements of a web page, maintain the necessary level of security and protect user confidential information. The most popular programs of this class today are Microsoft Internet Explorer and the free software product Mozilla FireFox, another browser program, Google-Chrome, is rapidly growing in popularity. The windows of these three browsers are shown in Fig. 15.7.
It can be seen from the figure that not a single browser, at least externally, introduced special innovations. It should be noted that the open development model in which Mozilla FireFox is created has its advantages: during the existence of this program, tens of thousands of additional modules were developed by volunteers for it. These modules greatly expand the functionality of the Mozilla FireFox browser. Some modules allow you to completely change the way the information is presented inside the program window (Fig. 15.8).
The FTP network protocol is designed to receive files from LR servers, while ftp servers play the role of a kind of file storage. There are practically no special client applications that work with this protocol, since all Internet browsers are able to read ftp directories and download files from them to the user's computer. In fig. 15.9 you can see what the same ftp directory looks like in Konqueror file manager and Internet Explorer.
The figure shows that modern means of working with ftp-servers reproduce remote network folders in the same way as local directories on the disk, and if the user has the appropriate rights, the difference between network and local files is practically erased: you can open, edit, cut, copy and drag files and folders from both the hard drive to the remote server and vice versa.
E-mail is one of the most common means of exchanging personal and business information on the Internet. There are a lot of software for working with email. Among the most well-known email clients with a graphical user interface, it is worth noting, apparently, commercial programs Microsoft Outlook and The Bat, as well as the free program Mozilla Thunderbird. In fig. 15.10 you can see Microsoft Outlook and Mozilla Thunderbird windows.
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For a modern mail program, the ability to receive and send messages is not enough to withstand competition in the market for such programs. Additionally, you need to support the following features:
□ receiving and sending messages not only in text format, but also in other formats (for example, HTML);
□ sending attachments;
□ playback of multimedia content;
□ search inside the headers, topics and text of messages;
□ maintaining a database of addresses;
□ creation of additional folders;
□ automatic operations on incoming mail, including folding it into various folders depending on the filters assigned;
□ protection against dangerous content in the message or attachment.
Instant messaging services
From the moment of its appearance to the present day, instant messaging services (Internet pagers) are unprecedentedly popular among Internet users. The first and most famous is the ICQ service. The format and applications that support the Jabber protocol are slightly less known. A mobile phone number and an ICQ number have become as integral identifiers as a passport number. Instant messaging services allow you to exchange messages in one window, send files to each other in parallel
(e.g. photos). Of the additional functions that implement instant messaging services, we can distinguish such as organizing conferences and collective chat (simultaneous conversations of several people displayed in one window).
There are a lot of programs that support instant messaging, and all of them are either free or free, but with advertising. In fig. 11.15 shows the windows of the Kopete and QIP programs supporting both the Jabber and ICQ formats at the same time.
| Fig. 11/15. Internet pagers |
| Peer-to-peer networks Peer-to-peer or peer-to-peer networks (Peer to Peer, P2P) do not need a server. The purpose of this service is direct file sharing between network participants. The work of peer-to-peer networks is based on the fact that each client is also a server at the same time. If someone has an interesting file, he tells the program that he wants to put this file on the network, and then notifies interested people about it. The program breaks the file into small parts, and other people downloading this file at the same time provide those “pieces” that they have already downloaded to the following clients. Thus, the effect of optimizing the load on the network and the absence of a single server in a peer-to-peer network is achieved. Among the most well-known programs for organizing P2P networks, pTorrent is a client program, the window of which can be seen in Fig. 12/15. The main problem of peer-to-peer networks is the fact that electronic information products (programs, films, books and music) are often distributed with copyright infringement. |
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| I 84.237.164.95 | pTorrent 1.8.3 | D | 100,0 | 6.2 kB / s | 4(0 | 192 w | I AM |
| I 90.150,137.18? | pTorrent 1,8,3 | D | 100,0 | 2.9 kB / s | 3 I 0 | 208 m | 51.2 I \u003d |
| I "Memory 116-238-112-92.pool.ukrtel.net | pTorrent 1,8,1 | D | 100.0 | 1.8 kB / s | 3(0 | ||
| j Mlriet 166.255.92-89, tmn.ertefeconri.ru | Iitorrent 1,8,3 | D | 100,0 | 0.3 kB / s | 2 J 0 | ||
| 1 JAN 93-80-0-187. broadband, corbina, gi Lu _ __ | pTorrent 1,8,2 | 0,2 | 4.2 kB / s | yashshshshshzh | 240 kB | Jff j - | |
| Fig. | j ".; D: 52.0 kB / s T: 2.6 MS 15.12. pTorrent program | Xj; O\u003e 2fc0 / sT: 93.2k8 |
15.6.4. Programs for research and calculations
Specialized software for conducting scientific research, collecting scientific (experimental) statistics and performing special scientific calculations based on the collected data is not as widely known as, for example, Internet software, office or multimedia software. One of the areas of scientific research, in which the specialized scientific software is widely used, is bioinformatics, which is closely related to decoding the human genome and the subsequent construction of gene models (genetic engineering) for solving problems of medicine, health, and agriculture. The Avogadro program, for example, allows you to create amazing three-dimensional models of molecules (Fig. 15.13).
Programs for general mathematical, statistical and physical calculations are found most often (examples of such programs: STATISTICA, MathCad, MathLab, MATHEMATICA). The third type in terms of the number of programs is programs for astronomical modeling and astronomical calculations.
15.6.5. Educational programs
The trend of integrating computer technology into the educational process today is becoming stronger and stronger, while software is being actively developed that is specifically focused on the educational process. The software for the educational process can be divided into three main groups:
□ for interaction;
□ to transfer knowledge in certain subjects;
□ for computer testing and training.
Programs for interaction
With the help of modern software and hardware, a teacher can demonstrate his desktop on student monitors and see student desktops on his computer monitor. These tools also allow students to access each other's desktops. Typically, this mechanism works effectively within the same class within the local computer network, but with good network bandwidth, it can be effective in global networks or the Internet. This creates a distributed learning environment in which all participants can access each other's desktops. An example of software that implements these principles is the Axis Projects NetOp School software product.
Programs for transferring knowledge in specific subjects
Programs of this type in an interactive form allow you to obtain knowledge on a particular subject of training or in a particular field of knowledge. There are many such programs today, both commercial and free. As an example, we cite the program "Interactive Periodic Table", which allows to obtain comprehensive information about each element of the periodic table (Fig. 15.14).
Programs for computer testing and training
There are a lot of programs for computer testing and training, both freely available and paid, ranging from simple programs with an answer to a dozen questions with a single choice of option to powerful computer testing and qualification systems with network registration, a wide range of job methods question and answer to it, and a base of questions consisting of tens of thousands of different options.
Professional computer testing systems also have built-in intelligence, and if during the survey you cannot answer a question correctly, they will ask it again, but rephrase it. If the answer is again incorrect, the system will begin to check knowledge of the topic as a whole.
Educational Operating System of Russia
In Russia, in 2008, the development and testing of the educational Linux distribution, called “School Linux”, was completed and tested. This educational distribution, based on Alt Linux Desktop and Alt Linux Server solutions, has several versions:
□ Master - the most complete version designed for a “good” hardware platform (with a RAM capacity of 2 GB or more);
□ Junior - the most common solution designed for most school computers, differs from the execution of the Master only in the absence of the most resource-intensive packages, such as Eclipse;
□ Lightweight - a special lightweight solution for older computers with RAM from 512 to 128 bytes;
□ Terminal server - a solution for one powerful computer and a class of old computers with a RAM capacity of 32 to 64 MB;
□ Server - a server solution with a set of educational server software designed to integrate school computers into a network with a single gateway, content filtering of traffic, means of collective interaction (Media Wiki) and e-learning (Moodle).
The educational distribution kit contains a comprehensive set of office, system and network programs for every taste. In addition, the educational distribution includes many specialized scientific, educational and software applications. A powerful database of development tools will allow students to master a variety of programming and design techniques in different programming languages \u200b\u200band in different environments.
15.6.6. Programs for the organization of work of educational institutions
Programs for computerizing the management of the school process and facilitating the work of the school administration, interacting with parents, recording various events in the life of students, monitoring their health status and supporting the educational process (computer class journal, computer diary, online parent-teacher meeting) have been developed and have been used for a long time, but they have mostly of foreign origin. However, as you know, in some areas of activity, standards and formal criteria diverge. This was the case with accounting programs that had to be created practically “from scratch” for our country, and this happened with the programs for managing the work of the school or university: the structures of educational institutions, the criteria for evaluating, enrolling, splitting into groups and disciplines turned out to be too different. And the legislative framework for a long time did not encourage the development of such programs.
The very first software products that made life easier for the administration of an educational institution were programs for scheduling classes, taking into account the load of teachers, classrooms, subjects, and other parameters. These programs did not require knowledge of any special standards and documents, the solution to the problem of allocating resources over time is pure mathematics. One of the successful implementations of such programs, Rector, is shown in Fig. 15.15.
However, scheduling the life and administrative tasks of an educational institution is not limited. Thematic lesson planning, attendance and grading, various school activities, contacts with parents - all this also requires some program support. Such support is implemented in the Net-School program (Fig. 15.16).
In this system, many school administration functions are automated. But it can not be freely used in school
the process, and it is not a matter of programming, but of the legal and financial design of many operations: there is a problem with the school journal, which will have to be duplicated twice, in electronic form, and in paper; the problem of financing mailing reports to parents in the form of SMS messages has not been resolved.
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| pupils | September | Average | Valuation for the period | ||||||||||||
| 10 ! | assessment | ||||||||||||||
| U | U | AND | Li | w | and | Lj | U | Li | AND | U | U | ||||
| 1, Aronova Irin | ill | 5,00 | |||||||||||||
| 2, Badyashev Alexander | l | ill | 4,33 | ||||||||||||
| 3. Zimin Arkadi | UP | Hill | 4,00 | ||||||||||||
| 4. K "raierova Valentine | iill | f ~ l 31 | |||||||||||||
| 5, | Illl | 3,50 | |||||||||||||
| 6, Kuznetsova Anastasia | iiii | ... 3,67 .. | |||||||||||||
| 7, Kursk Xen | " | 3,50 | |||||||||||||
| 0. . | iiii | 2,67 | |||||||||||||
| 9. Norova Tut I! | UP | ill | 5/30 | ||||||||||||
| 10, Pavlova Nat | FROM | ! fill | |||||||||||||
| 11, Renat! | llfill | 3,00 | |||||||||||||
| 12, Romam | iill | 3,33 | |||||||||||||
| 13. Sazonova South | yaya | 5,00 | |||||||||||||
| 14. | 4,50 |
| ShShShtSh Ihwi |
| JIIIIIIi SHV |
Fig. 15.16. School administration and information system Net-School
15.6.7. Multimedia programs
The class of multimedia software includes programs with which you can create, edit, save and play multimedia data, that is, data containing stationary and moving images, sound. Multimedia software includes a number of very popular programs: graphic editors of raster formats Adobe Photoshop and GIMP, vector graphic editors Corel Draw and Corel Xara, programs for creating and editing flash-animations, programs for working with sound, and a number of media players , from picture viewers to DVD players.
15.6.8. Accounting programs
Accounting programs represent a huge class of applications. It can be both stand-alone software products, and software modules included in the information system. Among domestic accounting programs, the most famous program is 1C: Accounting. Once started as an autonomous software environment for accounting calculations, it has now been transformed into an information system that includes modules for personnel accounting (1C-frames), warehouse accounting (1C-warehouse), planning of financial activities of industrial enterprises (1C- enterprise) and trading companies (1C-trade). This software product is commercial.
Among free software, there is also a solution for automating the accounting and economic accounting of enterprises (Ananas), which, when used correctly, may in many cases be more appropriate than the rather expensive and requiring special training 1C system.
15.6.9. Programs for financial calculations and forecasting
The main purpose of such programs is to carry out financial calculations. Such programs can perform the following functions:
□ development of the business plan of the enterprise;
□ business development design;
□ analysis of the financial condition of the enterprise on the basis of its financial statements;
□ calculation of financial indicators;
□ calculation of the borrower's creditworthiness;
□ preparation of the annual report of the enterprise;
□ comparison of the financial condition of the enterprise with competing companies;
□ analysis of profitability, solvency, liquidity and financial stability;
□ analysis of planned investment activities.
An example of this type of software is the Expert Systems software package: Project Expert, Audit Expert, and Prime Expert. These programs allow you to produce all of the above types of financial analysis and planning, risk assessment and enterprise capabilities.
15.6.10. Programs for technical design
It is impossible to imagine modern industry and construction without software packages. The terms of development and production, as well as the timing of the development of design documentation for the construction of buildings, become decisive in the competition. Modern computer-aided design systems allow you to create drawings of parts, assemblies and devices on a computer, and immediately in three-dimensional form, and immediately calculate the strength, wear resistance and other determining technical characteristics. The best-known programs of this class are Autodesk Autokad in all modifications, allowing for automated design from mechanical parts to chemical compounds, and Graphisoft ArchiCAD, which is designed for architectural design.
In addition to these very expensive software products, there is a whole line of various kinds of specialized programs, both commercial and free.
15.6.11. Business Software
Business software includes a wide variety of types of software packages:
□ industrial enterprise management software;
□ process control software;
□ specialized software for industries;
□ specialized software by type of production;
□ specialized information systems for types of business;
□ software for small businesses;
□ software for network business.
For large and medium-sized enterprises, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems have already become the standard. The most famous software packages of this class are SAP R / 3 from SAP AG and Oracle eBusiness Suite from Oracle. Of the Russian software packages, the Galaxy ERP package from the Galaxy Corporation, as well as 1C: Enterprise, was most widely used.
| ERP-systems are widespread due to its modular structure, which allows flexible configuration of the software product for the needs of any enterprise. For example, Oracle eBusiness Suite includes management subsystems: |
With the development of computer technology, more and more automated programs for calculations and calculations began to appear. Many of them are presented, for example, on our site for free. Download them is not difficult. There are paid applications, but on our site you will find only proven free programs for calculations and calculations.
It goes without saying that programs for calculations and calculations affect almost all areas of science and technology. Among these applications, you can find a lot of software products, ranging from conventional, engineering or scientific calculators, to entire computing systems and environments designed for more complex calculations. Naturally, many of the software products of the latter direction are not free, however, if you search well, especially on our website, they can be downloaded absolutely free.
So, the simplest programs include all kinds of calculators and programs for solving algebraic and trigonometric equations, matrices, vector systems, complex numbers, calculating function values, integrals, logarithms, etc. In most cases, such programs for calculations and calculations not only give the final result, but also show the clear course of the solution. In addition, they are able to build graphs of functional dependencies or, say, determine the extrema of functions. Such graphics can be presented in two-dimensional or three-dimensional performance. It seems that they are functionally primarily designed for schoolchildren and students. There are quite a lot of them on the Internet. It remains only to find the right software product and download it. Again, many programs are distributed free of charge and have no restrictions on the duration of use. You can use the search on our website.
The situation is more complicated if we consider programs for calculations and calculations, which are the most complex automated systems. Here you can make a variety of calculations. For example, these can be tensor equations. However, such systems are not limited to mathematical functions only. You can use them in completely different fields, say, for chemical equations, calculate the resistance of materials, or build various models of the behavior of matter in the field of physics. This we are not talking about more complex systems in the field of astronomy, which are used by aerospace agencies and observatories. Free download of such programs simply will not work, because almost all the developments in this area are top secret.
However, despite this, complex computing systems are often distributed free of charge and can be downloaded. On our site you can find them. As for such systems, it is enough to set the initial conditions, and the program will choose the most optimal parameters or the most rational solution. You understand how much labor and brains the developers themselves put into them.
Specialized software for conducting scientific research, collecting scientific (experimental) statistics and performing special scientific calculations based on the collected data is not so widely known. One of the areas of scientific research, in which the specialized scientific software is widely used, is bioinformatics (Avogadro program), then there are programs for general mathematical, statistical and physical calculations (the most common are STATISTICA, MathCad, MathLab, MATHEMATICA). The third type in terms of the number of programs is programs for astronomical modeling and astronomical calculations.
The trend of integrating computer technology into the educational process today is becoming stronger and stronger, while software is being actively developed that is specifically focused on the educational process. The software for the educational process can be divided into three main groups:
□ for interaction;
□ to transfer knowledge in certain subjects;
□ for computer testing and training.
Multimedia programs
The class of multimedia software includes programs with which you can create, edit, save and play multimedia data, i.e. data containing stationary and moving images, sound. Multimedia software includes a number of very popular programs: graphic editors of raster formats AdobePhotoshop and GIMP, vector graphic editors CorelDraw and CorelXara, programs for creating and editing flash animations, programs for working with sound, and a number of multimedia players, from programs view pictures to DVD players.
Accounting programs
Accounting programs represent a huge class of applications. It can be both stand-alone software products, and software modules included in the information system. Among domestic accounting programs, the most famous is the 1C program: Bookkeeping, which includes modules for personnel accounting (1C-frames), warehouse accounting (1C-warehouse), financial planning of industrial enterprises (1C-enterprise) and trading companies (1C-trade ) This software product is commercial.
Among free software, there is also a solution for automating the accounting and economic accounting of enterprises (Ananas), which, when used correctly, may in many cases be more appropriate than the rather expensive and requiring special training 1C system.
Programs for financial calculations and forecasting
The main purpose of such programs is to carry out financial calculations. Such programs can perform the following functions:
□ development of the business plan of the enterprise;
□ business development design;
□ analysis of the financial condition of the enterprise on the basis of its financial statements;
□ calculation of financial indicators;
□ calculation of the borrower's creditworthiness;
□ preparation of the annual report of the enterprise;
□ comparison of the financial condition of the enterprise with competing companies;
□ analysis of profitability, solvency, liquidity and financial stability;
□ analysis of planned investment activities.
An example of this type of software is the ExpertSystems software package: ProjectExpert, AuditExpert, and PrimeExpert. These programs allow you to produce all of the above types of financial analysis and planning, risk assessment and enterprise capabilities.
Programs for technical design
The best-known programs of this class are AutodeskAutokad in all modifications, allowing for automated design from mechanical parts to chemical compounds, and GraphisoftArchiCAD, which is designed for architectural design.
In addition to these very expensive software products, there is a whole line of various kinds of specialized programs, both commercial and free.
Business Software
Business software includes a wide variety of types of software packages:
□ industrial enterprise management software;
□ process control software;
□ specialized software for industries;
□ specialized software by type of production;
□ specialized information systems for types of business;
□ software for small businesses;
□ software for network business.
For large and medium-sized enterprises, turnkey resource planning systems (EnterpriseResourcePlanning - ERP) have become the standard. The most famous software packages of this class are SAPR / 3 from SAPAG and OracleeBusinessSuite from Oracle. Of the Russian software packages, the Galaxy ERP package from the Galaxy Corporation, as well as 1C: Enterprise, was most widely used.
RP-systems are widespread due to its modular structure, which allows flexible configuration of the software product for the needs of any enterprise. For example, OracleeBusinessSuite includes management subsystems:
□ business performance;
□ material flows;
□ customer relationship;
□ finance;
□ maintenance and repair;
□ staff;
□ production;
□ projects;
□ life cycle;
□ logistics.
The ERP system is very flexible in configuration, easily adapts locally and can satisfy almost any business needs for management.
Social challenges of software development. Human freedom
The ever-increasing freedom of a computer from software, and sometimes from disk drives and from user information storage devices, is in many ways good: all that a person needs is a computer network and the ability to connect to it. You can find programs on the network, perhaps even an operating system, documents are on the network, editing or sending them, the person again saves them in network storages. At the same time, human freedom from software is exchanged for lack of freedom in another way. What is the degree of confidentiality, security, accessibility of documents?
It’s nice to go into the “intelligent virtual home”, which in all respects meets your desires and tries to predict them. But who can guarantee that tomorrow it will also be your desires, and not the desires of some hacker who has cracked the information system of managing your “intelligent house”?
Therefore, it is possible to predict a period of long and wary attitude to some software development trends, at least until they are properly and reliably regulated in the legal sphere. Otherwise, the freedom granted by technology may result in unexpected slavery.
Intellectual degradation
Computers are becoming smarter with increasingly sophisticated software. At the same time, the program interface is becoming easier and more fun. No need to think, no need to strain, the most sophisticated technologies available in the form of colorful icons and pictures will do everything for you: they will calculate, evaluate, predict, pick up a spouse, prescribe a diet. There are much more answers on the Internet than questions from people, and this cannot but cause alarm. If a person does not train muscles, he physically degrades; if a person ceases to strain his mental apparatus, he degrades intellectually. This is a very important challenge that only a modern education system built with in mind to meet this challenge can adequately answer, including a lifelong education system.
Questions
1. How can I classify the software according to the degree of its interaction with the hardware of the computer?
2. What software classes by type of licensing do you know?
3. What is the difference between free, open, commercial, and proprietary software?
4. What is the difference between portable and cross-platform software?
5. Classify the software by the way it interacts with the computer network.
6. What is dangerous software?
7. What is a portable application?
8. List the classes of application software that you know.
9. What are the main functions of a word processor?
10. What requirements should a modern spreadsheet meet?
11. What is the main and additional functionality of the program for creating and demonstrating presentations?
12. Are the programs included in MicrosoftOffice and OpenOffice.org packages functionally identical?
13. Why (with a list of functions) is the project management software intended for?
14. What functionality is important for a modern word processor?
15. What are the functional differences between MicrosoftWord and OpenOffice.orgWriter?
16. List the main functions of the table processor.
17. What is the additional functionality of the table processor?
18. What are pivot tables, why are they needed?
19. What is the purpose and typical functionality of the organizer?
20. What electronic document management systems do you know?
21. What is the basic functionality of an electronic document management system?
22. Creating a presentation using PowerPoint.
23. What programs for working with Internet services are known to you?
24. What are the functions of educational software?
25. How to create documents and spreadsheets in common “office” formats without installing an office suite on a computer?
26. What are the prospects for software development?
27. What are the social consequences of intense human interaction with modern software?
28. Social challenges of software development